Emotion, term commonly and loosely used to denote individual, subjective feelings which dictate moods. In psychology, emotion is considered a response to stimuli that involves characteristic physiological changes—such as increase in pulse rate, rise in body temperature, greater or less activity of certain glands, change in rate of breathing—and tends in itself to motivate the individual toward further activity. Early psychological studies of emotion tried to determine whether a certain emotion arose before the action, simultaneously with it, or as a response to automatic physiological processes.

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Central Mechanisms of the Sleep–Wakefulness Cycle Control V. Koval’zon Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071 Russia Received February 7, 2011 Abstract—The notions on the anatomical, physiological and neurochemical mechanisms of the regulation. Pavlov volnovaya forma cheloveka iscelenie pomoshhju,pavel massalskij dokumenty stati vospominaniya massalskij,paulo coelho deluxe collection alchemist.

In the 1960s, the Schachter-Singer theory pointed out that cognitive processes, not just physiological reactions, played a significant role in determining emotions. Robert Plutchik developed (1980) a theory showing eight primary human emotions: joy, acceptance, fear, submission, sadness, disgust, anger, and anticipation, and argued that all human emotions can be derived from these.

Psychologists Sylvan Tomkins (1963) and Paul Ekman (1982) have contended that 'basic' emotions can be quantified because all humans employ the same facial muscles when expressing a particular emotion. Studies done by Ekman suggest that muscular feedback from a facial expression characteristic of a certain emotion results in the experience of that emotion. Since emotions are abstract and subjective, however, they remain difficult to quantify: some theories point out that non-Western cultural groups experience emotions quite distinct from those generally seen as 'basic' in the West. Emotion An umbrella concept in the common language, typically defined by instantiation by reference to a variety of mental and behavioral states. These range from lust to a sense of liking, from joy to hostile aggression, and from esthetic appreciation to disgust. Emotions are usually considered to be accompanied by some degree of internal, frequently visceral, excitement, as well as strong evaluative components. Emotions are also often described as irrational, that is, not subject to deliberative cogitation, and as interfering with normal thought processes.

These latter qualities are often exacerbated in the emotional behavior and expression seen in clinical cases. The expression of strong emotions is typically considered to be symptomatic of some underlying conflict, and even the positive emotions are used as indices of unusually strong attachments and atypical earlier experiences. Sigmund Freud introduced the concept of repression to describe a defense mechanism against the occurrence of strong emotional experiences. From the psychoanalytic point of view, what is repressed is not the emotion itself, since the very concept of emotion implies conscious experience, but rather the memory of an event which, if it became conscious, would lead to strong conflicts and emotional consequences. Many other defense mechanisms, such as rationalization and compulsive or obsessive neurotic symptoms, are also seen as serving the purpose of avoiding conscious conflict and emotional sequelae. A subjective human and animal reaction to internal and external stimuli that is manifested, for example, as pleasure, displeasure, joy, or fear.

Emotions accompany practically all manifestations of the organism’s vital activity; in the form of direct experience, the significance, or meaning, of phenomena and situations is reflected in the emotions, which serve as one of the chief mechanisms of motivation—that is, the internal regulation of mental activity and behavior whose goal is the satisfaction of actual needs. Emotions emerged in the process of evolution as the means by which living creatures determine the biological significance of the various states of the organism as well as of external influences. The simplest form of emotion is called the emotional tone of sensations—the innate hedonic feelings that accompany certain vitally important effects, such as taste, temperature, and pain. Shabloni dlya lepbukov. Even at this level, emotions are differentiated into two polar classes: Positive emotions are evoked by helpful influences and impel the subject toward the latter’s furtherance and preservation. Negative emotions stimulate activity that seeks to avert harmful influences.

The ontogenetic development of emotions is related to the fact that certain objects and situations immediately preceding the emergence of emotions acquire the ability to evoke them; thus object emotions, which are anticipatory in nature, are formed. Emotions of a particular type, known as affects, develop under extreme conditions, when the subject cannot cope with an existing situation. Affects are distinguished by their great force, stormy progression, and pronounced autonomic symptoms, such as fear and rage. Affects are characterized by the trait of dominance; thus they inhibit other mental processes and impose certain kinds of “emergency” solutions—for example, flight or aggression—that are reinforced in evolution and that are valid only under typical biological conditions. Individuals thus acquire species experience by means of both the elementary and the more complex kinds of emotions. Using the emotions as reference points, the individual performs the necessary actions, such as avoidance of danger or perpetuation of the tribe, while remaining unaware of their purpose.